Saussure and Barthes: An Introduction
Ferdinand de Saussure is known as the father of modern linguistics — the science of language —because it was he who first conceptualized the fundamental principles of semiotics, initially coined semiology —the science of the life of signs within society. Like Aristotle’s Poetics, Saussure’s Course on General Linguistics was composed by his students with a series of compiled notes. According to Professor Paul Fry of Yale University, Aristotle and Saussure are both considered crucially formative figures in the development of structuralism, post-structuralism, and deconstruction, yet neither have authored works.
Roland Barthes, another key critical theorist who built upon Saussure’s work and called for “The Death of the Author,” may have appreciated this coincidence, but for the purposes of this essay, I will focus on Barthes’ work, Mythologies, in conjunction with Saussure’s. Barthes built upon Saussure’s concepts and created a second order semiological system, which he coined myth — a type of speech, a form, and mode of signification. Both theories, when utilized in a complimentary combination, offer a unique lens through which to analyze texts.
I will begin with a definitional analysis of each theory and later critique Coco Chanel’s No. 5 perfume ad within their context.
Saussure’s Semiology
According to Saussure, one of the most significant aspects of language is its social nature; language is a complex, collective system which exists as a social contract between members of a community. Individuals within language groups cannot single-handedly change words and their meanings because specific meanings are conventional, or socially constructed. Those who are born into preexisting language systems, such as English or French, are subject to them, and they must learn them in order to make use of them in communication.
In his system, Saussure separates speech (le parole) and specific languages (la langue) from the language system as a whole (le langage). Therefore, language may be retained in the mind apart from speech, and thus communication, as may be observed in sign language. The only two essential things needed to understand and communicate language are psychological meanings, or concepts, and sound-images, or visual images of sounds within the mind, which create a common denotation between people in a language group. Most importantly, language is the unique and arbitrary system by which human beings communicate with one another within a social system.
Saussure believed that an oversimplification of language would hinder semiology from becoming a true science, but he used the rudimentary idea of nomenclature, or naming, to conceptualize the dual nature of the linguistic sign. The linguistic unit, as explained by Saussure, is a double unit formed by associating two terms: the signified and the signifier. Both the signified, or concept, and the signifier, or sound-image, are united in the brain by an associative bond. A sound-image can be described as a psychological imprint of a sound, while a concept is the idea of a real-life object, also known as a referent. This linguistic unit may commonly be called a word, but it is not limited to this name. One of the most significant concepts to note about the linguistic sign is that it is arbitrary. This means that there is no connection between the signifier and the signified other than the learned associative bond, which explains why different words can signify the same concept. The following illustration details the parts of the linguistic sign.
Two elements are involved in language: thoughts and sounds. Apart from signs, there would be nothing to make a distinction between two ideas. Language is the link between thought and sound; it orders both thought and sound to create a coupling. Saussure explains thought and sound as two sides of the same sheet of paper. In a figurative sense, language is the glue that connects both sides of a single sheet of paper, or two abstractions into a concrete meaning. A wobbly mass of sound and a separate mass of thought have no meaning until they are structured through the use of language. The combination of thought and sound produce a form, not a substance. This form, also called language, is the means by which we communicate our otherwise nebulous thoughts and sounds. It is not a substance because it has no fixed meaning.
Language is a system in which the value of each sign relies upon the presence of other signs. Values are composed of a dissimilar thing that can be exchanged or similar things that can be compared. The value of signs is negative and differential, which means that all signs are understood by what they are not as opposed to what they are when they are compared to the other signs in a system. I know, for example, that a “t” is not a “k” because it is dissimilar, not because it is similar. The way in which the “t” is produced is not important, as long as it is not identical to other letters.
Professor Paul Fry uses this example: a red light signifies “stop” when it is placed in the semiotic system of a traffic light, but a red light on Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer’s nose signifies “go” to all of the other reindeer in Rudolph’s semiotic system. A traffic light is not a reindeer, and a reindeer is not a traffic light, so the concept of the red light takes on a new signifier in each case. The value of each sign is determined by its context in relation to the other signs in the system, and signs are valued by what they are not.
Barthes’ Mythologies
Now that the basic groundwork of Saussure’s theory has been laid, I will move on to a description of Roland Barthes’ theory in Mythologies. Saussure’s linguistics led Barthes to develop what he termed a “second order semiological system,” also known as “myth.” This system builds upon the completed linguistic sign and creates another layer of meaning. The double unit sign of Saussure’s system becomes the signifier of Barthes’ system. This signifier then attaches to a new signified and creates deeper level significations. Barthes calls myth “a type of speech…a system of communication… [and] a mode of signification.” It is a type of social usage that can be read in any material. Because myth is arbitrary, pure matter may have any meaning. In myth one may see a replica of Saussure’s concept of language. It is a social means of communication, and it forms a message.
Myth is a system rooted in history, and like language, it is conventional, or socially constructed. It consists of connotative meanings that pervade culture, and it predates those under its influence. All myth is conveyed through discourse, which could mean any mode of communication like photography, speech, or architecture. Barthes explains that myth as a tri-dimensional pattern that corresponds to Saussure’s system. He calls the first semiological system the “language-object” and the second semiological system the “metalanguage,” because it is a second type of language built upon the first. The following diagram illustrates Barthes’ second order semiological system. The black box represents Saussure’s first order system, while the red box represents Barthes’.
According to French philosopher Louis Althusser, ideology is an imaginary relationship of individuals to their real conditions of existence. Myth and ideology are closely related, and this is the reason both become prevalent in pop culture advertisements. Advertisers know how to use ideology in their favor, to sway the hearts and minds of viewers, and they produce ads that appeal to the various layers of meaning that society has tucked away in the collective consciousness. Chanel is no exception, and arguably, the company has the market cornered on those who choose to live as demigods or aspire to become them. The exclusive flavor and extravagance of Chanel’s ad lend to a clear mythological meaning: Chanel No.5 perfume will do no less than make you a goddess, and if it fails to do that, it will surely give you an elite status.
Chanel No. 5 and Marilyn Monroe
At the most basic level of interpretation, Chanel’s ad exemplifies the use of signs within a language system. It contains three dominant images or concepts: a woman, a perfume bottle, and a company logo. Additionally, it contains both English and French signs. In theory, the predominant image of the woman produces a psychological sound-image in the English speaker’s mind: the visualization of the word, “woman.” This exchange between the image and the mental sound-image creates a concrete sign. The image of the woman produces the idea, or concept, of the sign, and the word “woman,” as it appears in the mind produces the sound-image, like the two sides of a coin. If an English speaker decides to change the sign “woman” into a new sign, like “frufru,” he or she will fail without the mutual consent of the social group that speaks the language. Ask any baby. The sign “woman” historically exists within the English language system, so it is impossible for an individual to change it.
According to Saussure, people are subject to the language system in which they are born, and they must learn it to communicate with others. Because signs are arbitrary, the image of the “perfume” may also be termed “eau de parfum” by the French speaker, as is evidenced by the ad. Although signs may change from language to language, they may not change within an established, or conventional, system, unless agreed upon by the entire group. Of course, languages do change over time if enough people agree to new meanings.
Continuing with a further description of signs in relation to Barthes’ Mythologies, Chanel’s ad features a specific, culturally identifiable woman in the right hand corner dabbing perfume on her chest. Her fingers form the shape of a “v,” her mouth is open, and her head is tilted upward. Her gaze centers on a mirror, and she holds a bottle of Chanel No. 5 perfume in her other hand. On the bottom right hand corner of the page is the sign for the Coco Chanel company: two C’s facing back to back, and the sign, “Chanel.” To the left of the woman is a proportionately large bottle of golden perfume, baring the signs, “No. 5,” “Chanel,” “Paris,” and “Eau de Parfum.” The text above the bottle uses signs that denote lofty concepts or ideas: forever, acclaim, powerful, long-lasting, elevated, and Classic.
When initially observing the ad, one may read the simple signs: woman, perfume, “v,” etc. and may comprehend, according to Saussure, that the sound-images do in fact exist within the mind. Once the brain registers the sound-images and concepts, however, it goes into a deeper mythological level of interpretation. The signs speak to the viewer through his or her cultural ideology, and therefore become signified and associated to myth. For example, myth might tell someone that the woman is “Marilyn Monroe.” She is a historical icon within society, and she symbolizes something according to its conventions. Monroe embodies associations that most people identify immediately: sex, femininity, classic beauty, innocence, and appeal. These “signifiers” of the second order semiological system can be connected to new signifiers and associations, which in turn lead to a deeper level of analysis.
The connotative meanings of the words on the page may unfold more layers of meaning. For example, the phrase “now and forever” calls to mind the signified concepts of commitment, marriage, and perhaps god-like qualities, such as permanence or eternity. The words “powerful and long-lasting” similarly evoke qualities that a common mythology might connect to a deity. Chanel focuses on these qualities to persuade viewers to associate the No. 5 label with elitism and deification, which in turn creates more layers of myth.
The presence of a cultural icon, Marilyn Monroe, adds value to the perfume that may not be realized otherwise. Unfortunately, within American culture, there is a social agreement that Monroe is not as much a “woman” as an object to be desired or emulated. Deep seated beliefs about femininity and sex are attached to her image, and therefore, Chanel may tap into the shared ideology of society and promote it through the development of associations to its product. Chanel No. 5 is an iconic fragrance, and the coupling of the perfume’s image with the sexual diva entices people to desire it even more. The image creates a feeling of exuberant luxury and implores viewers, through the effective use of myth, to experience a sort of semi-divine life.
Through the use of two systems of semiology in analysis, meaning begins to unravel, and what may have once appeared to be a simple perfume ad can turn into a complex system of signs. A person may be inclined to buy a product after viewing an ad but have no idea why. Saussure and Barthes shed light on human motivations when they reveal the meanings and uses of semiological systems. Their theories give insight into why people feel compelled to purchase products they see advertised. Having a clearer understanding of these concepts may help people to more actively engage in their generally subconscious choices by bringing these decisions to the forefront of the mind. With this knowledge, each person may make a conscientious choice and decide whether or not they would like to yield to the suggestive power of myth.
M. Chaplin
Works Consulted
De Saussure, Ferdinand. Course in General Linguistics. Translated by Wade Baskin, Philosophical Library, 1959.
Barthes, Roland. Mythologies. The Noonday Press, 1957.
Chanel. Advertisement for Chanel N°5 featuring Marilyn Monroe. Chanel, 2013. The campaign utilizes a 1960 interview recording of Monroe discussing the fragrance, originally mentioned in a 1952 interview with Life.